Loading...
 
Toggle Health Problems and D

Effects of low vitamin D on pregnancy and neonate – review Jan 2015

Maternal–Fetal Impact of Vitamin D Deficiency: A Critical Review

Maternal and Child Health Journal, January 2015, Volume 19, Issue 1, pp 94-101
Letícia Schwerz Weinert, Sandra Pinho Silveiro (Brazil)

Table of Contents
Image

Research into the extra-skeletal functions of vitamin D has been expanding in recent years. During pregnancy, maternal vitamin D status may be of concern because of the key role of this vitamin in fetal skeletal development and due to the association between hypovitaminosis D and adverse maternal–fetal outcomes. Therefore, the objective of this manuscript was to review the maternal–fetal impact of gestational vitamin D deficiency and the benefits of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy. A literature search was performed in PubMed and Embase employing the following keywords: vitamin D deficiency, pregnancy, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and hypovitaminosis D. All relevant articles in English language published since 1980 were analysed by the two authors.
Neonatal complications derived from vitamin D deficiency include

  • low birth weight,
  • growth restriction, and
  • respiratory tract infection.

In the mother, vitamin D deficiency has been associated with

  • altered glucose homeostasis and
  • increased incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus,
  • pre-eclampsia, and
  • bacterial vaginosis.

However, the current state of the evidence is controversial for some other endpoints and the actual benefit of vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy remains unclear.

Additional longitudinal studies may clarify the actual impact of vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy, and randomised trials are required to define the benefits of vitamin D supplementation in reducing the incidence of adverse outcomes in the mother and infant.
 Download the PDF from VitaminDWiki

References
  1. Wolden-Kirk, H., Gysemans, C., Verstuyf, A., et al. (2012). Extraskeletal effects of vitamin D. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America, 41(3), 571–594. CrossRef
  2. Holick, M. F. (2007). Vitamin D deficiency. The New England Journal of Medicine, 357(3), 266–281. CrossRef
  3. Principi, N., Bianchini, S., Baggi, E., et al. (2013). Implications of maternal vitamin D deficiency for the fetus, the neonate and the young infant. European Journal of Nutrition, 52(3), 859–867. CrossRef
  4. Walsh, J. M., Kilbane, M., McGowan, C. A., et al. (2013). Pregnancy in dark winters: Implications for fetal bone growth? Fertility and Sterility, 99(1), 206–211. CrossRef
  5. Aghajafari, F., Nagulesapillai, T., Ronksley, P. E., et al. (2013). Association between maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and pregnancy and neonatal outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 346, f1169. CrossRef
  6. Holick, M. F., Binkley, N. C., Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., et al. (2011). Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: An Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 96(7), 1911–1930. CrossRef
  7. Jones, G., Strugnell, S. A., & DeLuca, H. F. (1998). Current understanding of the molecular actions of vitamin D. Physiological Reviews, 78(4), 1193–1231.
  8. Institute of Medicine. (2011). Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Acesso em janeiro 2013. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=13050.
  9. Holick, M. F., Biancuzzo, R. M., Chen, T. C., et al. (2008). Vitamin D2 is as effective as vitamin D3 in maintaining circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 93(3), 677–681. doi:10.1210/jc.2007-2308. CrossRef
  10. Wortsman, J., Matsuoka, L. Y., Chen, T. C., et al. (2000). Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(3), 690–693.
  11. Premaor, M. O., Paludo, P., Manica, D., et al. (2008). Hypovitaminosis D and secondary hyperparathyroidism in resident physicians of a general hospital in southern Brazil. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 31(11), 991–995. CrossRef
  12. Holick, M. F., & Vitamin, D. (2013). Sunlight and cancer connection. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry, 13(1), 70–82. CrossRef
  13. Afzal, S., Bojesen, S. E., & Nordestgaard, B. G. (2013). Low 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of type 2 diabetes: A prospective cohort study and meta-analysis. Clinical Chemistry, 59(2), 381–391. CrossRef
  14. Dobnig, H., Pilz, S., Scharnagl, H., et al. (2008). Independent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Archives of Internal Medicine, 168(12), 1340–1349. CrossRef
  15. Bikle, D. D., Gee, E., Halloran, B., et al. (1984). Free 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels in serum from normal subjects, pregnant subjects, and subjects with liver disease. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 74(6), 1966–1971. CrossRef
  16. Kovacs, C. S. (2005). Calcium and bone metabolism during pregnancy and lactation. Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia, 10(2), 105–118. CrossRef
  17. McAree, T., Jacobs, B., Manickavasagar, T., et al. (2013). Vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy—Still a public health issue. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 9(1), 23–30. CrossRef
  18. Gernand, A. D., Simhan, H. N., Klebanoff, M. A., et al. (2013). Maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and measures of newborn and placental weight in a U.S. multicenter cohort study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 98(1), 398–404. CrossRef
  19. Waiters, B., Godel, J. C., & Basu, T. K. (1998). Perinatal vitamin D and calcium status of northern Canadian mothers and their newborn infants. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 18(2), 122–126. CrossRef
  20. Brooke, O. G., Brown, I. R., Bone, C. D., et al. (1980). Vitamin D supplements in pregnant Asian women: Effects on calcium status and fetal growth. The British Medical Journal, 280(6216), 751–754. CrossRef
  21. Basile, L. A., Taylor, S. N., Wagner, C. L., et al. (2007). Neonatal vitamin D status at birth at latitude 32 degrees 72’: Evidence of deficiency. Journal of Perinatology: Official Journal of the California Perinatal Association, 27(9), 568–571. CrossRef
  22. Burris, H. H., Rifas-Shiman, S. L., Camargo, C. A, Jr, et al. (2012). Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D during pregnancy and small-for-gestational age in black and white infants. Annals of Epidemiology, 22(8), 581–586. CrossRef
  23. Leffelaar, E. R., Vrijkotte, T. G., & van Eijsden, M. (2010). Maternal early pregnancy vitamin D status in relation to fetal and neonatal growth: Results of the multi-ethnic Amsterdam Born Children and their Development cohort. The British Journal of Nutrition, 104(1), 108–117. CrossRef
  24. Bodnar, L. M., Catov, J. M., Zmuda, J. M., et al. (2010). Maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations are associated with small-for-gestational age births in white women. The Journal of Nutrition, 140(5), 999–1006. CrossRef
  25. Robinson, C. J., Wagner, C. L., Hollis, B. W., et al. (2011). Maternal vitamin D and fetal growth in early-onset severe preeclampsia. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 204(6), 556 e1–556 e4. CrossRef
  26. Morley, R., Carlin, J. B., Pasco, J. A., et al. (2006). Maternal 25-hydroxyvitamin D and parathyroid hormone concentrations and offspring birth size. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 91(3), 906–912. CrossRef
  27. Gale, C. R., Robinson, S. M., Harvey, N. C., et al. (2008). Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and child outcomes. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62(1), 68–77. CrossRef
  28. Barker, D. J. (2004). The developmental origins of adult disease. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 23(6 Suppl), 588S–595S. CrossRef
  29. Kaijser, M., Bonamy, A. K., Akre, O., et al. (2008). Perinatal risk factors for ischemic heart disease: Disentangling the roles of birth weight and preterm birth. Circulation, 117(3), 405–410. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.710715. CrossRef
  30. Ioannou, C., Javaid, M. K., Mahon, P., et al. (2012). The effect of maternal vitamin D concentration on fetal bone. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 97(11), E2070–E2077. CrossRef
  31. Weiler, H., Fitzpatrick-Wong, S., Veitch, R., et al. (2005). Vitamin D deficiency and whole-body and femur bone mass relative to weight in healthy newborns. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal = journal de l’Association medicale canadienne, 172(6), 757–761. CrossRef
  32. Javaid, M. K., Crozier, S. R., Harvey, N. C., et al. (2006). Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and childhood bone mass at age 9 years: A longitudinal study. Lancet, 367(9504), 36–43. CrossRef
  33. Lawlor, D. A., Wills, A. K., Fraser, A., et al. (2013). Association of maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy with bone-mineral content in offspring: A prospective cohort study. Lancet, 381(9884), 2176–2183. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62203-X. CrossRef
  34. Shibata, M., Suzuki, A., Sekiya, T., et al. (2011). High prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in pregnant Japanese women with threatened premature delivery. Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism, 29(5), 615–620. CrossRef
  35. Fernandez-Alonso, A. M., Dionis-Sanchez, E. C., Chedraui, P., et al. (2012). First-trimester maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) status and pregnancy outcome. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics: The Official Organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 116(1), 6–9. CrossRef
  36. Burris, H. H., Rifas-Shiman, S. L., Kleinman, K., et al. (2012). Vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy and gestational diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 207(3), 182 e1–182 e8. CrossRef
  37. Belderbos, M. E., Houben, M. L., Wilbrink, B., et al. (2011). Cord blood vitamin D deficiency is associated with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Pediatrics, 127(6), e1513–e1520. CrossRef
  38. Camargo, C. A, Jr, Ingham, T., Wickens, K., et al. (2011). Cord-blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of respiratory infection, wheezing, and asthma. Pediatrics, 127(1), e180–e187. CrossRef
  39. Camargo, C. A, Jr, Rifas-Shiman, S. L., Litonjua, A. A., et al. (2007). Maternal intake of vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of recurrent wheeze in children at 3 y of age. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85(3), 788–795.
  40. Weisse, K., Winkler, S., Hirche, F., et al. (2013). Maternal and newborn vitamin D status and its impact on food allergy development in the German LINA cohort study. Allergy, 68(2), 220–228. CrossRef
  41. Jones, A. P., Palmer, D., Zhang, G., et al. (2012). Cord blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and allergic disease during infancy. Pediatrics, 130(5), e1128–e1135. CrossRef
  42. Sorensen, I. M., Joner, G., Jenum, P. A., et al. (2012). Maternal serum levels of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D during pregnancy and risk of type 1 diabetes in the offspring. Diabetes, 61(1), 175–178. CrossRef
  43. Miettinen, M. E., Reinert, L., Kinnunen, L., et al. (2012). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level during early pregnancy and type 1 diabetes risk in the offspring. Diabetologia, 55(5), 1291–1294. CrossRef
  44. Morales, E., Guxens, M., Llop, S., et al. (2012). Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 in pregnancy and infant neuropsychological development. Pediatrics, 130(4), e913–e920. CrossRef
  45. Torkildsen, O., Grytten, N., Aarseth, J., et al. (2012). Month of birth as a risk factor for multiple sclerosis: An update. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. Supplementum, 195, 58–62. CrossRef
  46. Mirzaei, F., Michels, K. B., Munger, K., et al. (2011). Gestational vitamin D and the risk of multiple sclerosis in offspring. Annals of Neurology, 70(1), 30–40. CrossRef
  47. Salzer, J., Hallmans, G., Nystrom, M., et al. (2012). Vitamin D as a protective factor in multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 79(21), 2140–2145. CrossRef
  48. Baker, A. M., Haeri, S., Camargo, C. A, Jr, et al. (2010). A nested case–control study of midgestation vitamin D deficiency and risk of severe preeclampsia. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 95(11), 5105–5109. CrossRef
  49. Bodnar, L. M., Catov, J. M., Simhan, H. N., et al. (2007). Maternal vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of preeclampsia. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 92(9), 3517–3522. CrossRef
  50. Robinson, C. J., Alanis, M. C., Wagner, C. L., et al. (2010). Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in early-onset severe preeclampsia. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 203(4), 366 e1–366 e6. CrossRef
  51. Wei, S. Q., Audibert, F., Hidiroglou, N., et al. (2012). Longitudinal vitamin D status in pregnancy and the risk of pre-eclampsia. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 119(7), 832–839. CrossRef
  52. Azar, M., Basu, A., Jenkins, A. J., et al. (2011). Serum carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamins in women with type 1 diabetes and preeclampsia: A longitudinal study. Diabetes Care, 34(6), 1258–1264. CrossRef
  53. Powe, C. E., Seely, E. W., Rana, S., et al. (2010). First trimester vitamin D, vitamin D binding protein, and subsequent preeclampsia. Hypertension, 56(4), 758–763. CrossRef
  54. Shand, A. W., Nassar, N., Von Dadelszen, P., et al. (2010). Maternal vitamin D status in pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes in a group at high risk for pre-eclampsia. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 117(13), 1593–1598. CrossRef
  55. Senti, J., Thiele, D. K., & Anderson, C. M. (2012). Maternal vitamin D status as a critical determinant in gestational diabetes. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing: JOGNN/NAACOG, 41(3), 328–338. CrossRef
  56. Parlea, L., Bromberg, I. L., Feig, D. S., et al. (2012). Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D in early pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetic Medicine: A Journal of the British Diabetic Association, 29(7), e25–e32. CrossRef
  57. Tomedi, L. E., Simhan, H. N., & Bodnar, L. M. (2013). Early-pregnancy maternal vitamin D status and maternal hyperglycaemia. Diabetic Medicine: A Journal of the British Diabetic Association, 30(9), 1033–1039. doi:10.1111/dme.12229.
  58. Hensel, K. J., Randis, T. M., Gelber, S. E., et al. (2011). Pregnancy-specific association of vitamin D deficiency and bacterial vaginosis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 204(1), 41 e1–41 e9. CrossRef
  59. Martin, D. H. (2012). The microbiota of the vagina and its influence on women’s health and disease. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 343(1), 2–9. doi:10.1097/MAJ.0b013e31823ea228. CrossRef
  60. van Oostrum, N., De Sutter, P., Meys, J., et al. (2013). Risks associated with bacterial vaginosis in infertility patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Human Reproduction, 28(7), 1809–1815. doi:10.1093/humrep/det096. CrossRef
  61. Mirmonsef, P., Krass, L., Landay, A., et al. (2012). The role of bacterial vaginosis and trichomonas in HIV transmission across the female genital tract. Current HIV Research, 10(3), 202–210. CrossRef
  62. Gillet, E., Meys, J. F., Verstraelen, H., et al. (2012). Association between bacterial vaginosis and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: Systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 7(10), e45201. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045201. CrossRef
  63. Merewood, A., Mehta, S. D., Chen, T. C., et al. (2009). Association between vitamin D deficiency and primary cesarean section. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 94(3), 940–945. CrossRef
  64. Scholl, T. O., Chen, X., & Stein, P. (2012). Maternal vitamin D status and delivery by cesarean. Nutrients, 4(4), 319–330. CrossRef
  65. Declercq, E., Barger, M., Cabral, H. J., et al. (2007). Maternal outcomes associated with planned primary cesarean births compared with planned vaginal births. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 109(3), 669–677. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000255668.20639.40. CrossRef
  66. Simpson, E. L., Lawrenson, R. A., Nightingale, A. L., et al. (2001). Venous thromboembolism in pregnancy and the puerperium: Incidence and additional risk factors from a London perinatal database. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 108(1), 56–60.
  67. Marshall, N. E., Fu, R., & Guise, J. M. (2011). Impact of multiple cesarean deliveries on maternal morbidity: A systematic review. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 205(3), 262 e1–262 e8. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2011.06.035. CrossRef
  68. Brandenbarg, J., Vrijkotte, T. G., Goedhart, G., et al. (2012). Maternal early-pregnancy vitamin D status is associated with maternal depressive symptoms in the Amsterdam Born Children and their Development cohort. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(7), 751–757. CrossRef
  69. Cassidy-Bushrow, A. E., Peters, R. M., Johnson, D. A., et al. (2012). Vitamin D nutritional status and antenatal depressive symptoms in African American women. Journal of Women’s Health, 21(11), 1189–1195. CrossRef
  70. Hollis, B. W., Johnson, D., Hulsey, T. C., et al. (2011). Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: Double-blind, randomized clinical trial of safety and effectiveness. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research: The Official Journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, 26(10), 2341–2357. CrossRef
  71. De-Regil, L. M., Palacios, C., Ansary, A., et al. (2012). Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD008873.
  72. Dawodu, A., Saadi, H. F., Bekdache, G., et al. (2013). Randomized controlled trial (RCT) of vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy in a population with endemic vitamin D deficiency. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 98(6), 2337–2346. CrossRef
  73. Wagner, C. L., McNeil, R., Hamilton, S. A., et al. (2013). A randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation in 2 community health center networks in South Carolina. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 208(2), 137 e1–137 e13. CrossRef
  74. Roth, D. E., Al Mahmud, A., Raqib, R., et al. (2013). Randomized placebo-controlled trial of high-dose prenatal third-trimester vitamin D3 supplementation in Bangladesh: The AViDD trial. Nutrition Journal, 12(1), 47. CrossRef
  75. Hashemipour, S., Lalooha, F., Zahir Mirdamadi, S., et al. (2013). Effect of vitamin D administration in vitamin D-deficient pregnant women on maternal and neonatal serum calcium and vitamin D concentrations: A randomised clinical trial. The British Journal of Nutrition, 110(9), 1611–1616. doi:10.1017/S0007114513001244.
  76. Grant, C. C., Stewart, A. W., Scragg, R., et al. (2014). Vitamin D during pregnancy and infancy and infant serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration. Pediatrics, 133(1), e143–e153. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-2602. CrossRef
  77. Weinert, L. S., Reichelt, A. J., Schmitt, L. R., et al. (2014) Serum vitamin D insufficiency is related to blood pressure levels in diabetic pregnancy. American Journal of Hypertension. doi:10.1093/ajh/hpu043.
  78. Aly, Y. F., El Koumi, M. A., & Abd El Rahman, R. N. (2013). Impact of maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy on the prevalence of neonatal vitamin D deficiency. Pediatric Reports, 5(1), 6. doi:10.4081/pr.2013.e6. CrossRef
  79. Song, S. J., Zhou, L., Si, S., et al. (2013). The high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and its related maternal factors in pregnant women in Beijing. PLoS One, 8(12), e85081. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085081. CrossRef
  80. Toher, C., Lindsay, K., McKenna, M., et al. (2013). Relationship between vitamin D knowledge and 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels amongst pregnant women. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics: The Official Journal of the British Dietetic Association,. doi:10.1111/jhn.12150.
  81. Parildar, H., Dogruk Unal, A., Aksan Desteli, G., et al. (2013). Frequency of vitamin D deficiency in pregnant diabetics at Baskent University Hospital, Istanbul. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 29(1), 15–20. doi:10.12669/pjms.291.2896.
  82. Bartoszewicz, Z., Kondracka, A., Krasnodebska-Kiljanska, M., et al. (2013). Vitamin D insufficiency in healthy pregnant women living in Warsaw. Ginekologia Polska, 84(5), 363–367.
  83. Vandevijvere, S., Amsalkhir, S., Van Oyen, H., et al. (2012). High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in pregnant women: A national cross-sectional survey. PLoS One, 7(8), e43868. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043868. CrossRef
  84. Collins-Fulea, C., Klima, K., & Wegienka, G. R. (2012). Prevalence of low vitamin D levels in an urban midwestern obstetric practice. Journal of Midwifery and Women’s Health, 57(5), 439–444. doi:10.1111/j.1542-2011.2012.00167.x. CrossRef
  85. Haggarty, P., Campbell, D. M., Knox, S., et al. (2013). Vitamin D in pregnancy at high latitude in Scotland. The British Journal of Nutrition, 109(5), 898–905. doi:10.1017/S0007114512002255. CrossRef
  86. Bodnar, L. M., Simhan, H. N., Powers, R. W., et al. (2007). High prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in black and white pregnant women residing in the northern United States and their neonates. The Journal of Nutrition, 137(2), 447–452.
  87. Lee, J. M., Smith, J. R., Philipp, B. L., et al. (2007). Vitamin D deficiency in a healthy group of mothers and newborn infants. Clinical Pediatrics, 46(1), 42–44. doi:10.1177/0009922806289311. CrossRef

VitaminDWiki observation: Adding Vitamin D during pregnancy is a ‘’low hanging fruit’’

VitaminDWiki - Pregnancy category contains

918 items in Pregnancy category

 - see also

VitaminDWiki – Healthy pregnancies need lots of vitamin D contains

Most were taking 2,000 to 7,000 IU daily for >50% of pregnancy
   Click on hyperlinks for details

Problem
Vit. D
Reduces		Evidence
0. Chance of not conceiving3.4 times Observe
1. Miscarriage 2.5 times Observe
2. Pre-eclampsia 3.6 timesRCT
3. Gestational Diabetes 3 times RCT
4. Good 2nd trimester sleep quality 3.5 times Observe
5. Premature birth 2 times RCT
6. C-section - unplanned 1.6 timesObserve
     Stillbirth - OMEGA-3 4 timesRCT - Omega-3
7. Depression AFTER pregnancy 1.4 times RCT
8. Small for Gestational Age 1.6 times meta-analysis
9. Infant height, weight, head size
     within normal limits		 RCT
10. Childhood Wheezing 1.3 times RCT
11. Additional child is Autistic 4 times Intervention
12.Young adult Multiple Sclerosis 1.9 timesObserve
13. Preeclampsia in young adult 3.5 timesRCT
14. Good motor skills @ age 31.4 times Observe
15. Childhood Mite allergy 5 times RCT
16. Childhood Respiratory Tract visits 2.5 times RCT

RCT = Randomized Controlled Trial

See also VitaminDWiki

Image

Effects of low vitamin D on pregnancy and neonate – review Jan 2015        
11843 visitors, last modified 23 Aug, 2023,
Printer Friendly Follow this page for updates
Pregnancy 867 Cost savings with Vitamin D 152 Infant-Child 844
Page actions
Print
Edit Files 2

Attached files

ID Name Comment Uploaded Size Downloads
20004 ToC Pregnancy.jpg admin 23 Aug, 2023 35.46 Kb 90
20003 Vit D and Pregnancy_CompressPdf.pdf admin 23 Aug, 2023 148.46 Kb 74